03 Social Psychological Properties of Dress

03.1 Perception of Appearance

Kidwell, C.B. & Steele, V. (Eds.). (1989). Men and Women: Dressing the Part. Washington D.C.: Smithsonian Institute Press. ISBN 0-87474-550-0
($40.00 cloth), ISBN 0-87474-559-4 ($24.95 paper). 188 pages.

Reviewed by K. Cleaver

There has recently been a mini-wave of books dealing with gender and dress, most of them not written by people with clothing and textile backgrounds. The editors of this book, who are costume historians, make their purpose clear: they "wanted to explore the historical relationship between our outward appearance and our definitions of masculinity and femininity…and to use the images and their messages to…describe and identify historical models of gender roles." They caution that the book is not a chronological history of costume nor a history of gender roles. They also disclaim any attempt to examine how gender images are produced or how they receive cultural legitimization which is a cautious although sometimes disappointing approach. They leave this to the more speculative works such as Elizabeth Wilson's Adorned in Dreams (1985) and Evans and Thornton's Women and Fashion (1989). Although edited by Kedwell and Steele (who each contributed chapters) the other aughors are also costume historians and include Jo B. Paoletti, Shelly Foote, Barbara Schreier, and Carol L. Kregloh. Included are chapters discussing children, work, sporting dress, sexuality, and fashionability, all within the context of gender differences and all covering a wide range of issues. The longest single discussions are about Bloomer costume and men's hair length in the chapter titled "Challenging Gender Symbols." Illustrations are excellent and from diverse sources, historic and contemporary, and include a number of well done color photographs.
Kidwell speaks of the project as interdisciplinary; she notes the the three questions underlying the structure of the book are: "How does fashion express gender? What does it mean when gender conventions change…And does the existence of gendered dress imply the existence of sexaul inequality?" The real strength of this book lies in its examination/questioning of so many of the cliches/theories about male and female dress that have been repeated endlessly in costume history books throughout time. Most of these theories were nothing more than speculation and personal feelings, although they often gained the status of "truth" with time and repetition (James Laver's theories were probably the most famous of these). Using recent research coupled with an easily readable style, the various authors examine and challenge the basis of many of these favorite time-honored gender-difference theories of dress. Nor do the writers stop at challenging traditional clothing and textile sources. Kidwell manages in one chapter to gently contradict Desmond Morris and Alison Lurie among others.
Since the authors generate many questions which they themselves do not answer, the book could certainly be a starting point for further research ideas. It would make an excellent teaching resource in both historic costume and socio-psychological courses for generating questions and raising the popular issues associated with gender.

Wolf, N. (1992). The beauty myth: How images of beauty are used against women. New York: Anchor Books, Doubleday. ISBN 0-385-42397-7, 348 pages, $11.00 softcover.

Reviewed by Linda Boynton Arthur, U. of Hawaii

Wolf proposes that society's emphasis on the critical importance of women's appearance (the beauty myth) is an ideology that maintains patriarchal power and keeps women politically, economically and socially paralyzed.
Several authors (Freedman, 1986; Hill-Collins, 1990; Bernard, 1989) have examined the role of beauty as a central dimension of femininity. They suggest that the beauty myth has serious repercussions. This ideology, represented by beauty ideals, is a symbolic representation of cultural attitudes toward women. Hence the idealized images are potent sources of social control. Wolf maintains, (following Bernard, 1981) that the beauty myth promulgates women's economic dependence on men. Striving to attain an attractive appearance has remained important, even as women become less economically dependent on men. Wolf explains this as part of a backlash against feminism that uses images of female beauty as a political weapon. In addition, even though women are gaining ground economically, they are still, for the most part, financially dependent on men.
Wolf surpasses an essentialist view of beauty; she notes that ideals change through time. As women released themselves from the cult of domesticity, the beauty myth continued the social control of women. These idealized images drive fashion and have an element of social control: Wolf states, "The beauty myth is always actually about prescribing behavior, and not appearance" (1992, p. 14). Thus, appearance is symbolic of socially derived roles. According to Laws, (1979, p. 181) "becoming attractive is a role obligation."
Ideal beauty is ideal because it doesn't really exist. Between the ideal and the real female there lies terrain filled with ambiguity and vulnerability. In this space lies the power of dominant ideologies to not only shape female behavior, but ultimately to control the lives of women. The beauty myth fills that space and fuels the cosmetic and fashion industries.
Unfortunately, Wolf ignores women's active construction of the beauty myth. In painting women as hapless victims (especially in regard to eating disorders) Wolf absolves us of the responsibility for our own behavior. While women have the capacity to choose whether or not to participate in the beauty system, few women ignore the dominant beauty ideals. Why do the majority of women participate in the promulgation of the beauty myth? This is the question.
Based on three years of research, The Beauty Myth cites a wide variety of sources. Though the book is filled with statistics, not all are from valid or reliable sources. This book created a firestorm of controversy when it originally appeared in hardcover in 1991; many reviewers saw it as overly pessimistic and extremist. Wolf addresses that controversy in the forward to the 1992 softcover edition of The Beauty Myth. I recommend this edition highly for ITAA members, inasmuch as Wolf does a credible politico-economic analysis of the beauty industries. However, the last half of the book ought to be looked at with some level of skepticism, as she loses a sense of objectivity by the uncritical adoption of an extremist feminist view of pornography.

Bernard, J. (1981). The female world. New York. Free Press.

Freedman, R. (1986). Beauty bound. Lexington, MA. Lexington Books.

Hill-Collins, P. (1990). Black feminist thought. London. Routledge.

Laws, J. (1979). The second x: Sex role and social role. New York. Elsevier.

Mathis, C.M., & Connor, H.V. (1993). The triumph of individual style. Menlo Park, CA: Timeless Editions. ISBN 0-9632223-0-9, 182 pages, $28.95.

Reviewed by Carol Salusso, Washington State University

Treating the body as an art form that can be analyzed, balanced, and enhanced is a refreshing approach featured in The Triumph of Individual Style. Teaching the principles of art as they apply to understanding and enhancing the female body places this book well above past treatments of this topic commonly titled 'clothing selection' and 'wardrobe consultation'. The authors provide a full range of topics that comprise the process including multifaceted body form analysis, color and texture analysis and consideration of the process of creativity that produces one's personal style. The consideration of art principles applied to the clothed body is art criticism level, complete with wonderful art that illustrates respectively body form and surface features. The approach with straightforward drawings of apparel styles, as they would appear on that body type. Not once is any body feature labeled a figure problem!!!! This nonjudgmental approach helps the reader get into the spirit of analyzing the body in detail. Understanding develops from progressively considering many examples thoroughly explained with illustrations and concepts found in each example.
Color and texture components are equally palatable and intelligible. The use of color and texture examples is beautifully done and contributes strongly to understanding proposed theory. The authors also use a combination of discussion, vignette highlights and specific examples, to make use of the book straightforward but ever involving and fascinating.
Bringing the topics of clothing selection and wardrobe consultation to the theoretical level of art criticism is an important contribution to literature about the clothed body. I would not hesitate to recommend this book to my students and colleagues. It would be a wonderful text in a class where students must gain sophistication in visual analysis of the body and the clothed body form. It would be valuable to use as a resource if working as a wardrobe consultant, designer, buyer or merchandiser. In short, this book deserves serious consideration as a text that would greatly enhance our delivery of the body-clothes relationship in the textiles and clothing curriculum.

Joseph, N. (1986). Uniforms and nonuniforms: Communication through clothing. New York: Greenwood.
ISBN 0-313-25195-9, 218 pages, $36.95.

Reviewed by Charlene Lind, Brigham Young University

To examine the sociology of clothing, Joseph has selected the uniform as representing the most precise sartorial form of communication, thus giving a point of reference for understanding all other forms of clothing signs and symbols.
The book is organized in three sections. The first gives background based in semiotics and should be very helpful to readers not well versed in that theoretical perspective. The second section concentrates on specifics of the uniform and its function in bureaucratic institutions. The final section compares occupational and leisure clothing and costumes to the more highly structured situation of true uniforms.
Joseph is a sociologist who uses the concepts of semiotics to help explain the process of communication rather than a semiologist dedicated to a strict interpretation of signs. He explains in the introduction that instead of deriving structure from mental constants he considers structure to arise from roles, statuses, groups and institutions. He sees clothing as one of the channels of information, which precedes other forms as well as contributing information during interaction.
The book contains familiar themes for anyone working with the use of clothing as communication. While some might have begun with individual communications through everyday clothing, Joseph focuses most of the book on clothing symbols of organizations and formal personal relationships. Though information, communication and personal identifications are left for the last chapter; the chapter on quasi-uniforms, such as occupational dress, discusses the same types of signs used in less structured and more personal settings.
Compared to other books written by non-clothing and textiles professionals, it is more scholarly and comprehensive than Lurie's Language of Clothing, and does not make Lurie's mistake of trying to push the analogy of clothing as a language beyond its logical limits. Joseph has an equally broad approach but a different focus than Lauer and Lauer's Fashion Power.
The book is well researched and well documented. The organization of ideas is clear and the reasoning easy to follow. Its carefully constructed form makes easy reading for students or professionals. It includes excellent examples from many historical and modern periods. The information on the use of military uniforms would be helpful to those wanting to familiarize themselves with the history of military costume. The bibliography is extensive, though includes relatively few clothing and textiles authors. It is particularly rich in sources concerning military uniforms.
This is a book that anyone interested in the social psychology of clothing will want to review. It could provide an introduction to the field for graduate students as it exemplifies careful research and concerns communication beyond the obvious surface aspects of apparel. The three chapters of Part 1 would be particularly useful to new graduate students. In that part Joseph introduces the different types of signs and how they develop through the rhetorical devices of metaphor and metonymy; the societal, organizational, and interpersonal contexts needed to understand clothing signs; and visual and physical properties of clothing affecting messages received by multiple audiences.

Lauer, R.H. & Lauer, J.C. (1981). Fashion Power
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Lurie, A. (1981). The Language of Clothes. New York:
Random House.

Fischer-Mirkin, T. (1995). Dress code: Understanding the hidden meanings of women's clothes. New York: Clarkson Potter. ISBN 00-517-59329-7, 248 pages,
$23.00.

Reviewed by Ardis W. Koester, Oregon State University

This book for the lay person describes the symbolic meanings of various aspects of clothing and appearance. Fischer-Mirkin is a fashion newspaper editor who writes in an easy-to-read style. The book includes a limited number of line drawing illustrations to emphasize main points.
The nine chapters include such topics as the power of fashion, communication with color, dress code on the job, fashion and status, and shoe passions. The book jacket claims the contents are from academic studies, interviews with fashion designers, and Fischer-Mirkin's experience as a fashion reporter. While the author does refer to some researchers, including Marilyn DeLong and Ann Marie Fiore, there are no citations to document the actual sources. There is an index to various topics and researchers who are named.
The emphasis of the book is the messages of clothing, whether from color, texture, or garment style. Several of the chapters have lists to aid in selection of clothing that will give desired messages or avoid undesirable messages. The chapter on color includes reactions to color from history, art, and psychology, then lists colors to wear for various occasions ranging from romantic dates to public speaking. The chapter on fashion seduction describes how clothing conceals or reveals the body to give sexual messages.
For the person who is unaware of the messages of clothing, this book is helpful and useful. For professionals in the field, it may provide ideas to generate theory for testing through research. It does provide insight into what people want to know about the symbolism of clothing.

DeLong, M. R. & Fiore, A. M. (1994). Aesthetics of textiles and clothing: Advancing multi-disciplinary perspectives. ITAA Special Publication #7. Monument, CO: International Textiles and Apparel Association, Inc. ISBN 1-885715-03-X, 234 pages, $35.00 softcover.

Reviewed by Sandra Lee Evenson, University of Idaho

Aesthetics of Textiles and Clothing: Advancing Multi-Disciplinary Perspectives, is a significant contribution to both the ITAA Special Publication Series and to the field of aesthetics. This collection of readings have their origin in three ITAA sessions which began in 1990 at a conference Special Topic Session where critical issues related to aesthetics were discussed, continued in a 1991 Conference Special Session with the presentation of research papers and culminated in a 1992 week-long seminar on aesthetics of clothing from the perspective of various disciplines. It is gratifying that the original lively debate begun in 1990 culminated in this 1994 book of readings.
The papers are grouped in a way that reflects the cause-and-effect nature of aesthetics. The editors state, "…we believe aesthetics involves understanding both the product and our response to it, the form and its meaning" (Fiore & DeLong, 1994, 1). Thus, the papers are grouped into Creator, Creative Process, Appreciation Process, and Appreciator. In addition, the papers represent a range of approaches to the study of aesthetics including anthropology, consumer behavior, consumer textiles, design, history, philosophy, semiotics, and social-psychology - and exemplify a variety of research methods including grounded interpretation, introspective interpretation, qualitative analysis, and visual analysis. This broad range of disciplines, cultures, and research methods makes this publication an excellent choice for graduate courses in aesthetics, design, and research methods. Many of the contributions can be strengthened by a discussion of the author's theoretical framework and research methodology. This will reinforce the idea that rigorous research begins with a methodology based on theory.
One of the most intriguing and provocative contributions is Fiore's "Aesthetics: The James Dean of Textiles and Clothing." Fiore takes the position that both James Dean and the field of aesthetics are mistakenly seen as enigmas and "ensnared in their own complexity." In her discussion, she brings the reader up against his/her bias about aesthetics. Aesthetics is obviously so much more than a pat statement of "I like it/I don't like it." But, our approach to the study of aesthetics is often that of the fellow who states, "I don't know art, but I know what I like." We like to keep what we think we know about aesthetics fuzzy and comfortable and easy, rather than explore the complexity of all the socio-cultural factors that contribute to the cause-and-effect of aesthetic response. We are fascinated by the Loch Ness Monster, but we are also reluctant to find it.
Aesthetics is complex because it is human experience, either as Creator or Appreciator. "Aesthetic experience is as much an experience of the body, as it is of the mind and the soul or spirit" (Fiore, 1994, p. 9). This ITAA Special Publication is very satisfying in its fearless and holistic approach to understanding this most human of responses.

Kilbourne, J. (1995). Slim hopes: Advertising and the obsession with thinness. Media Education Foundation, 38 minutes.

Reviewed by Linda Arthur, University of Hawaii

This is an excellent video, especially for introductory social-psychology of clothing and visual merchandising courses. Jean Kilbourne has followed up on her videos on the power of advertising (Killing us Softly, and Still Killing us Softly) with this video that focuses on the use of advertising to sell idealized images relating to thinness. She notes that advertisers have an enormous amount of power to influence consumers; they are the most persuasive and pervasive of the media influences in contemporary culture. In order to sell consumer products, they manipulate images. Kilbourne draws our attention to the ideal image presented by advertisers; these ideal images guarantee failure because they are literally unattainable.
Idealized Images and Thinness. Ideal images are literally created; while they were formerly created through makeup and airbrushing, now these images are computer generated. Many magazine covers look like photos of real women but they are assemblages of body parts from multiple models. Body doubles are used even for the most beautiful actresses. Five models may be used to create on image. More overtly, women's bodies are dismembered in ads; hence women's bodies become objects.
Advertisers promote thinness without regard to implications for women's health. Studies show a reduction of self-esteem in adolescence. 80% of 10 year old girls are on diets, and 11.3% of college women are bulemic. By today's standards, yesterday's sex symbols are fat. Twenty years ago, the average model weighed 8% less than the average woman, while today they weigh 23% less than the average woman. Only 5% of women are born with this body type. Nonetheless, thin models are the only images we see.
In addition to excessively thin bodies, the current idealized image includes a voluptuous bust. Since breasts are primarily fat, in order to be thin and voluptuous at the same time, change to the body is needed. In addition to padding, the Wonderbra and numerous other breast enhancers are marketed, along with surgery. Breast implants of silicone and saline are among the most common forms of plastic surgery today.
The ideal image has never been within the range of normalcy. These idealized images rob women of a sense of power. When asked "if you could have anything you want, what would it be?" the most frequent response from middle aged women is to lose weight. This is an impoverishment of images. We need to develop a critical view of the media.
Food, Sex and Control. Women's magazines present contradictory messages; they advertise weight loss regimes and products while simultaneously presenting sumptuous desserts. Food is advertised as a drug leading to a loss of control, which normalizes disordered eating behavior. Since ads encourage women to use food for emotional needs, food is sold as a substitute for sex.
A good girl (woman) is controlled and is therefore thin; she keeps her appetites under control. To enjoy food is to experience guilt. This is about the fear of women having more generalized control, and essentially power, as females gain more power culture responds with the image that keeps females thin and frail. The "little girl look" that keeps reappearing in the fashion magazines may reflect this un-empowerment.
Weight Loss Industry. Because food is temptation, diet aids are presented as salvation in moralistic tones, where thin equals good and fat equals bad. The last socially acceptable form of discrimination is against fat people, which keeps women in line. The weight loss industry does $33 billion/year in business. 75% of normal weight women think they're fat and 50% of women are dieting at any given time. This obsession with thinness is then used to sell cigarettes, leading to a constant increase in the rate of women who smoke.
Kilbourne ends the video by suggesting that we must constantly challenge the images presented; it is profitable for the ads to make women feel bad about their bodies. She suggests that we need more images of real, normal-sized women in the media.